Venice

Updated Sunday 15 May, 2011 12:18 PM

"Esto Perpetua: A history of the Most Serene Republic"

Venice. The longest lived Republic in the history of the world, it survived for 1,010 years. At the crossroads of Europe, it was once the richest state in Europe. As the New World was discovered, and the Empires of the nation-states were carved out, Venice simply could not keep up. It ended with a whimper with the occupation of Venice by the forces of Napoleon.

Thus, to stave off the destruction of Venice, the Ottoman Empire must stopped, and it must expand into a colonial empire, as the other nations did. Both of these, surprisingly, are not that difficult.

The POD is 1421. Mehmed, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire has died. The Byzantines have released his sun, Mustafa, from prison in order to claim the throne. Here’s where the differences begin.

1421- the Doge, in consultation with the Senate, agrees to launch a full-fledged attack on Ottoman territories, in exchange for Thessalonica. The Ottoman navy is quickly destroyed, and the Balkan princes, taking advantage of the chaos, invade Northern Greece and Bulgaria. The Empire, with the support of Venice, besieges Smyrna and quickly takes it. Attempts to move further are repulsed by Murad and Mustafa, who negotiate a peace and nominate Murad as the Sultan.

Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, conquers Genoa.

1422- With Murad proving incapable of defending the empire, the Janissaries overthrow Murad, and throw their support behind Mustafa. With little option other than to gain a peace, he accepts the loss of all European territories, and western Anatolia.

The Ottoman Empire has been effectively reduced to an Asian power.

1426- Venice and the Florentines ally against Milan, whose imperialistic tendencies have risen once again. Francesco Bussone, the famous mercenary general, agrees to work for Venice. He then proceeds to (at the behest of the Senate, who doubts the loyalties of Francesco) to besiege Brescia.

1427- Brescia falls, but the Duke of Savoy refuses to join the war against Milan, for fear of reprisal. Thus, the Milanese army that was on its western border heads East to face the Venetians. At the battle of Bergamo, the Venetians are defeated. Cries of treason are called against Francesco, but he stays out of Venice and avoids assassination attempts.

1428- Florence is able to move on Milan from the South, while the treasury of Venice raises another army of condottierre. Bergamo is besieged, and Francesco defeats the Milanese army.

1429- Emissaries of the Pope assist in negotiating a peace, in which all land from Bergamo to the Po is ceded to Venice.

1431- the Milanese, in concert with Genoa, march to war once again. Genoa hopes to reassert itself in the Eastern Mediterranean, and In the chaos in Florence, the Medicis take control of the city. Venice, using Constantinople as a base, take the Black sea possessions of Genoa, while the armies march on Bergamo. Francesco wins, but pursues halfheartedly.

The senate has had enough. Francesco (a.k.a Carmagnola). He is brought to Venice, where he is tricked into being arrested and sent to the dungeons. After the services of a master torturer from Padua, he confesses to be working for the Duke of Milan.

The trade in the Orient (now exclusively Venetian) is pouring in an average income of 1,000,000 anum.

Emperor Manuel forms an agreement with King Sigismund of Hungary to divide Serbia between the two realms. The rich silver minds now fall under Byzantine control.

1435- The Duchy of Athens is inherited by the Emperor of Byzantium through much lawyering. In reality this is done to prevent the Emperor from providing aid to Milan covertly, as well as to shore him up against the Ottomans. Milan, meanwhile, negotiates a peace with the Venetians.

1437- In order to avoid any future casus bellis against itself by the Duke of Milan, the Venetians approach Emperor Sigumund of the Holy Roman Empire, and ask him to recognize his claims.

As Filippo hadn’t even bothered to see the emperor on his way to Rome for the coronation, he readily agreed.

Filippo of Milan breaks the peace treaty, and marches east.

Meanwhile, King Sigismund of Hungary dies heirless , and in the chaos Manuel besieges Semendria, and besieges Belgrade. With the pressure on their southern border from Byzantium and their western from the Duchy of Austria, the Diet chooses Kind Ladislas II of Poland as the new ruler. King Ladislas now rules Lithuania, Poland, and Hungary; effectively the largest Catholic nation in Europe.

The siege fails, however, when John Corvinus Huniades (aka Hunyadi) leads an army of Serbs and Hungarians against Emperor Manuel. Defeating him, he goes on to penetrate as far south as Thessalonica, before Ladislas accepts peace with the Emperor (in exchange for freeing Wallachia from Byzantine dependency).

1439- Brescia is besieged by the forces of Filippo. The inhabitants are on the brink of starvation, and “the people long for death; sometimes there is no bread at all and they wander through the streets, faint with hunger. Yet they bear it without complaint rather than submit to the Duke of Milan.” The city is relieved by Francesco Sforza the following year, after the victory at Verona.

Francesco Sforza is also, through a marriage with Filippo’s sole daughter, the heir of Milan.

1440- Mustafa has finished consolidating his position in the Empire, and is now the ruler of most of Central and Eastern Anatolia. Despite this, he has no desire to wage war with Byzantium, despite its weakened state.

1442- The Republic of Lucca is annexed by Florence.

Naples is inherited by Alfonoso V, King of Aragon, who is now “King of the two Sicilies”. Southern Italy and Sardinia are now under the control of Aragon.

Peace is once again brokered between Venice, Florence, and Milan. Among the conditions if the independence of Genoa, which is reduced to its coastal holdings of the early 15^th century.

Florence is seeking to limit Venetian power on the continent, but due to its own conquests, is actually a power whose own expansion is sought to be limited. Thus, Venice and Florence have no choice but to continue to remain allies.

1446- With Filippo an old and sick man, Francesco Sforza moves to gain the French throne. The Senate promises Sforza support, and he crosses the Adda to Milan itself. Unfortunately, without any siege cannons or engines, the Venetians and Sforza are unable to take the city. He is forced to withdraw to the Romagna.

Ladislas, now feeling secure in his position, declares war on Byzantium. The two forces meet near Varna. Byzantine forces repulse charge after charge, but appear on the brink of defeat, when Vlad Dracul of Wallachia arrives on the field. His forces reinforce the Byzantines, and together they defeat Ladislas forces. Ladislas retreats north, and Byzantium regains all territory up to the Danube.

1447- Filippo dies in August, and with the vacuum in Milan, various claimants press to take power. Among them:

Charles of Orleans, who has an army waiting in Asti. As the nephew of Filippo Maria through the latter’s half-sister Valentina Visconti, he is the most legitimate heir.

Alfonso of Aragon, whose claim asserts that Filippo named him heir on his dethbed. Alfonso’s claim is strengthened by the presence of his troops inside the Castello, the fortress which guards Milan.

Frederick III of Austria, who claimsthat Milan was a lapsed imperial fief.

Alfonso’s troops are repulsed, but in the chaos that follows as the Tuscans march north, Charles’ forces take the city.

The Pope recognizes Charles claim to the Duchy, effectively insulting the Emperor, but at the same time urges the cessions of the lands the Venetians and Florentines now hold. Venetian dominance stretches to the River Adda, while the Medicis rule to Pavia.

Italy is badly shaken in the chaos that follows. Representatives from Venice and Florence travel south to King Alfonso, and then Rome, proposing a defensive alliance. This culminates in the Most Holy League of 1455, , which pledged to defend Italy against foreign aggressors. As one might expect, this does little to prevent wars on the peninsula; but for the next 40 years, no major city is sacked, and the treaty will be remembered when King Charles comes to claim his inheritance.

Italy in 1447

Venice now rebuilds. Her treasury has been exhausted, but with her monopoly on the Orient trade, she quickly rebuilds it.

1448-Mustafa dies. A prince of the Renassance, he made the unfortunate mistake of leaving behind 4 male sons, going against the Ottoman tradition. Civil war ensues, which is gleefully fanned by Byzantium. Two powerful heirs quickly dominate; Suleiman, and Kabal. Suleiman dominates the new territories in the east, while Kabal is strongest in the west. Suleiman is supported by the janissaries, while Kabal is supported by the uleema (Ottoman head of Islam).

1448- Seesaw battles rage throughout Anatolia, as Bursa (capital of Kabal) is besieged by Suleiman, but then relieved by reinforcements. Kabal’s capital of Trapezus is then besieged, only to be defeated by the Tartars.

Seeking to take advantage of the opportunity, Byzantium invades Kabal’s territory. Byzantine Inquisition begins.

1449- With The Byzantine Emperor Manuel taking Bursa, Kabal is quickly overthrown by the uleema, who welcome Suleiman back. Refugees from Western Anatolia tell of rape and pillage amongst its Muslim inhabitants, and conversions by sword.

Suleiman urges a jihad against the Byzantines, and several thousand Tatars flock to his banner. After several months reequipping, the army attacks the winter encampments of the Byzantines at Corum on Christmas Day, crushing it utterly. Suleiman’s army marches on Smyrna, which it promptly besieges.

Emperor Manuel appeals to the Venetians and other Orthodox nations for help. Due to pressing concerns at home, Serbia, Moldovia, and Wallachia do not intervene.

Venice dispatches an army of condottierre to Anatolia, 15,000 strong. The Ottomans promptly slaughter it. Despite this, efforts to take Smyrna are frustrated by the resupply by the Venetians. Due to the exorbitant costs of the war, poor financing, and the region’s chaos, the Byzantium Empire is forced to take a loan from Venice.

Condottierre fail to play a meaningful part in the rest of the war. There is a very important reason for this, which the Council of Ten realizes. Quite simply, they do not wage war.

Condottierre are assorted armies of mercenaries-therefore, they have no principles or patriotism to fight for, and as they are paid for wars and not for peace, it is in their duty to drag wars on as long as possible, with a minimal loss of life. Therefore, war developed into a system which was about as dangerous as fencing today. When faced with an enemy who was quite willing to fight a decisive battle, the condottierre run away.

1450- Byzantium raises 50,000 from the Balkans in the form of mercenaries, vassal princes, and would-be crusaders Emperor John Paleologus of the Byzantines dies childless. Demetrius, Despot of Morea and Athens, becomes the emperor. To cement his claim to the throne, he marries Caterina Cabbotto, daughter of an important Venetian Senator. According to the marriage contract, she was not merely the royal consort, but also the queen, with full right of succession.

The Ottoman army engages the mercenary army in battle. Although initially victorious, Suleiman is hit by a stray arrow, and the last heir to the house of Osman is dead.

1451- During the chaos followed by the Sultan’s death, the Byzantine/Venetian mercenary army reaches the river Sakarya. Malik Arslan Beg becomes the sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and is able to rally the forces against any incursions across it. A peace treaty is signed, recognizing the Byzantine claims.

Byzantine Inquisition restarts. All property of those who refuse to convert is transferred to the state. Not surprisingly, most of the property is used to pay off the debts to Venice.

Empress Caterina gives birth to a son, named Alexius. Two other children have been born, but as girls, they are not, and would not be, heirs to the Imperial throne.

Byzantine Renaissance begins.

1453- Venice begins reforming the military, hiring mercenary trainers from England and the Swiss canons. Several Byzantine captains of war are also hired, and the Republic’s army is retrained on a system of recruitment from the mainland territories.

The people of Milan revolt, and are promptly crushed. The Duke, unwilling or unknowing of the way of life in Italy, kills 300 members of the leading families in response.

1455- Emperor Demetrius dies. Caterina claims the throne as her own, and promises to step down when Alexius comes of age. The Byzantine nobles, however, fail to believe her, and see this as a ploy on the part of Venice to gain control of the empire, as opposed to the economic dominance they enjoy. (With some reason; many Venetians hoped that would happen, but Caterina was more concerned about her children than Venice at this point).

The Byzantine nobles rise up against her in a coup, taking control of Athens, and Smyrna. The attempt to gain control of Constantinople, however, fails.

Beginning of the War of the Tulips

Caterina appeals to the Republic of Venice for help. The Republic, grudgingly, agrees to provide naval support and cut off trade with the Royalist territories. It also agrees to loan 900,000 ducats, in exchange for the expulsion of Genoese merchants.

1457-By this point, Caterina’s forces have gained the upper hand. Smyrna has fallen to her forces. With victory in hand, she takes the opportunity to crush the nobles, and begins the establishment of a civil service based, ironically enough, on the Ottoman system.

Caterina also, in exchange for trading protections, receives the promise of naval support for Byzantium for 100 years.

1460- Ladislas eager, for more territorial expansion (and revenge on Venice for supporting Byzantium) invades Dalmatia. Dalmatia is valuable to Ladislas for two reasons:

1) It produces a great deal of grain, and is the breadbasket for the region.

2) It would give him access to the Mediterranean.

Diplomats are sent from Venice, proposing (once again; this last happened in 1410) that Venice might hold Dalmatia as a Hungarian fief, paying a token annual tribute. As one might expect, Ladislas wants more than a token tribute.

Spalato is besieged by Polish forces, and is taken in August after a 6 month siege. Venetian forces, reorganized on a hybrid of Swiss and Byzantine models, manage to fight well, but the weight of numbers results in the Hungarians winning the war of attrition.

1463- The war doesn’t officially end, but both sides agree to a 7 year truce, at the request of the Pope (who would like to see both sides bleed each other white).

Unfortunately, King Ladislas uses the truce to defeat the Teutonic Order, gaining West Prussia, Pommerania, and other territories. Now that ihis rear is secure, King Ladislas (who is now 74) is free to turn against Venice wholeheartedly.

1470- Spalato,, Clissa, and Sebenico have fallen to Ladislas forces. However, his attempts to enter the Italian peninsula are thwarted by Venetian forces at Udine, leaving Italy’s mainland territories intact.

1474- Segna falls to Polish forces, but King Ladislas dies. His successor, Zygmund, makes peace with Venice on relatively light terms. Venice cedes Zara and Spalato to him, but may keep the rest of its holdings in Dalmatia. However, Venice acknowledges it is a fief from Zygmund (as King of Hungary), and pmust pay an annual tribute to him.

The war has left Venice’s treasury at a rather low level, but a new source of funds appears. Bartolomeo Colleoni, the leader of Venice’s military efforts to reform (and ironically enough, a former condottieri) Bartolomeo Colloni, leaves Venice 216,000 ducats in gold and silver, and twice that in land and property.

1475- The Ottomans invade Georgia. Emperor Alexius declares that as defender of the faith, he will have no choice but to join his fellow Christians in a war against the Turks. Beginning of the Alexian War.

Sultan Selim, known as Selim the Sot, leads his army across the Sakarya river. His men ravage the surrounding countryside (which is, by this point, mostly Orthodox) and he besieges the city. The city is bombarded for two weeks, devastating the walls, but causing few casualties. Then Alexius’ river squadron appeared down the Sakarya, while cavalry, lining the banks, cut off the Sot’s retreat. The battle raged for five hours, and it was reported that the river turned red with blood. The Byzantines, with the craft designed on the Venetian model, broke through the chain of Ottoman vessels, dispersed them, and captured fourteen galleys.

After this, Alexius led his troops into the citadel of Angora to relieve the garrison. Breaches in the wall were quickly repaired, and plans made ready. Meanwhile, Selim ordered his Janissaries to, by night, make a major assault on the city. Selim finally forced his way into the lower part of the city, while groups of his forces scaled the walls to penetrate the citadel itself.

Alexius, however, withdrew his troops from the walls and ordered his men to hide. As Janissaries scattered through the emptry streets, searching for plunder and women, the signal was given by Alexius. The Janissary shouts of victories were drowned by Byzantine cries of “God wills it!” and the small groups were quickly cut to pieces.

The remaining Janissaries fled down from the citadel’s walls, only to meet with an even grimmer surprise. The night before, Alexius had ordered bundles of wood steeped piled together, and as the Janissaries fled, said piles were set alight and thrown at the retreating forces. As one might expect, the Turks below burn to death, some trapped, some burned as they ran. At this point, Alexius army marches against Selim’s artillery. Breaking before them, they fall back to a line of defense before Selim’s camp. Roused in fury, he charges into battle where, being drunk, he is promptly killed.

Winter falls with the Ottomans, and their new Sultan (4 year old Ismael) are in full retreat. The rest of the war consists of a mopup of the Ottoman forces.

1477- Ismael, under the direction of his viziers, agrees to peace. The Ottomans lose all from Kayseri west, and pay a heavy annual tribute to Georgia.

1478- on Easter Day, in the cathredal of Florence, Lorenzo de’ Medici is wounded by assassins. He knows that the plot had the secret support of the Pope and the Archbishop of Pisa. The Archbishop is executed, and Pope Sixtus excommunicated Lorenzo and interdicts Florence.

Beginning of the Easter War. Venice supports Florence, and King Ferdinand of Naples allies with the Pope. The viceroy of Milan also supports the latter, though halfheartedly (King Louis XI is busy consolidating his rule of the lands gained from Burgundy).

The war rages indecisively for two years, before ending in a peace which restores the status quo.

“You Venetians, it is certain, are very wrong to disturb the peace of the other states of Italy rather than to rest content with the most splendid state of Europe, which you already possess. If you knew how you are universally hated, your hair would stand on end… Do you believe that these powers in Italy, now in league together, are truly friends among themselves? Of course they are not; it is only necessity, and the fear which they feel for you and your power, that has bound them in this way… You are alone, with all the world against you, not only in Italy but beyond the Alps also. Know then that your enemies do not sleep. Take good counsel, for, by God, you need it…”

Message from Ferdinand, King of Naples, to Giovanni Gonnella, Secretary of the Venetian Republic.

1481- Duke Ercole of Este begins provocating Venice, with the support of his father-in-law, King Ferdinand of Naples. He:

1) Built saltpans on the mouth of the Po, defying a Venetian monopoly 8 centuries old.

2) Raised several obscure issues of frontier boundaries (which probably weren’t worth quarreling over)

3) When a Venetian consul had a local priest arrested for unpaid debts, and was excommunicated by Ferrara’s vicar, he supported the vicar. (The vicar’s bishop condemned the action). Despite the fact that Pope Sixtus himself was scandalized, Ercole refused to reinstate the consul.

Clearly, the Duke was looking forward to a fight; he also knew that Venice was weak from the war with Ladislas and the Italian states. What he didn’t quite realize was that those embarrassments made Venice all the more determined to prove to the world that she was still Venice, the Serrenisima.

Naples joins Ferrara, as does Florence. Sixtus joins Venice, hoping for a piece of the Duchy. Venice’s troops, well-trained, and not led by condottierre, smash the Duchy’s forces.

1484- Pope Sixtus switches sides when the King of Naples marches on Acona. He appeals for Venice to accept a peace.

Venice refuses, explaining how its armies (which had recently been blessed by His Holiness) were triumphant. Sixtus lays Venice under an interdict. Venice’s representative refuses to forward the bull to his government, which forces Sixtus to send it by courier to the Partriarch.

The Partriarch is too ill to pass it on (naturally). He did inform the Council of Ten, however, who ordered that the churches should perform as usual. Venice informs the Pope they shall appeal to a Council.

King Ferdinand, whose fleet has been devastated by Venice, sues for peace. With Modena occupied, Duke Ercole is forced to recognize Venice as his overlord, and and cede the Duchy of Ferrara to Venice.

Pope Sixtus, a bitter man, dies. His successor, Innocent VIII, lifts the interdict.

1489- Caterina, Queen of Cyprus, abdicates. She cedes her kingdom to Venice.

1492- King Charles VIII of France raises an expedition to lead his way to Naples. His goal is, with the expedition, reclaim the Kingdom of Naples, which he feels is unquestionably his. The King of Naples also, automatically, receives the King of Jerusalem, and he believes that once achieving those two, he may launch a great Crusade.

Charles, unfortunately, was broke. Forced to pawn his jewels before leaving, he should have flinched at the thought of leading an army across long and fragile lines of communication and supply, and being at the mercy of several powerful, potentially hostile states. He is egged on, however, by factions from most of Italy (excluding Venice) and his chamberlain.

1494- After several years of planning, 46,000 men march across the Alps. Reaching Asti in march, and an advance force smashes the Neapolitans at Rapallo. By November, the King has reached Florence, whose citizens open their gates to the French forces.

Future historians call this a mistake of epic proportions.

1495- On February 22, the people of Naples give a rousing welcome to their new ruler.

After three months however, unrest began to grow among the population of the smaller towns, who found themselves having to support French garrisons. Other states, meanwhile, now wondered what Charles would do, having taken his kingdom so easily.

Venice, the Papal States, and Castile, enter an alliance to defend Italy, and preserve their territory. King Charles is free to leave “if he wishes to return as a friend, no one will will do him any hurt; if as an enemy, the confederates will all go to each other’s help and defense”. The Doge even offers thirty-five galleys to transport Charles.

The King has no choice but to leave, but had no choice but to leave. This might have been achieved peaceably, but the Duke of Orleans and Milan, who had remained in Asti, decided to press his claims against the Venetian held part of the Duchy, and seized Cassano. Neutrality gives way to war, and the armies of the League meet the French at Fornovo.

The French are outnumbered three to one, are exhausted, hungry, and weren’t eager to fight. The League army, which is mainly Venetian, is led by Francesco Gonzga, Marquis of Mantua. As one might expect, the professional, well-trained army of Venice smashes the French. In Venice, banks and shops closed in celbration, and an edict had to be issued to protect the French and Savoyards in the city after they began to be pelted with fruit. Gongaza besieges Milan, which is betrayed by its inhabitants after three months, who open the gate to Venice.

Promising to respect all local customs, insofar as they remain after three decades of French rule, and no taxes for several years, the people of Milan declare for Venice.

Venice then makes a separate peace with France, who cedes the Duchy to Venice. The league breaks up in disgust after what it considers treachery.

In Portugal, meanwhile, Manuel I comes to the throne. He decides to break with the Portuguese tradition of establishing trading posts in Africa and search for a route to the Indies, to earn Portugal the wealth that Venice possesses.

1499- Charles dies of the “French disease”, and he dies on Palm Sunday. His successor, Charles of Orleans, declares himself, upon succession Duke of Mila (breaking the treaty with Venice). He sends ambassadors to Italy, pointedly ignoring Venice and Naples. He soon gets what he wanted, as:

Florence, uncertain of herself after the burning of Savonarola, was hostile to Venice, as both cities wanted the city of Pisa, and its Tyrrhenian ports.

Pope Alexander is bought off when his son is offered the Duchy of Valentinois and marriage with the sister of the King of Navarre.

The King of Naples, meanwhile, is struggling to avert famine in his near bankrupt kingdom.

Thus, Venice is the state to go to war against King Louis. However, the King faces the determined population of The Duchy, who refuse to submit to him again. A Venetian army smashes his outside of Tortono, and from there marches on Asti. In disgust at the numerous defeats, Louis formally cedes the Duchy to Agostino Barbarigo, Doge of Venice.

With the 16^th century over, Venice has reached the peak of prosperity. With the Byzantines still busy securing Anatolia, their dominance over trade with the east is assured. They have unified Northern Italy, and have a land route to their hated rival Genoa. But in the Italy of Machiavelli, such hegemony is never uncontested…